Articles | Volume 4, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-233-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-233-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
19 Apr 2021
Research article |
| 19 Apr 2021
| 19 Apr 2021
A role for virtual outcrop models in blended learning – improved 3D thinking and positive perceptions of learning
School of Geoscience, University of Aberdeen, King's College,
Aberdeen AB24 3UE, UK
Adam J. Cawood
School of Geoscience, University of Aberdeen, King's College,
Aberdeen AB24 3UE, UK
Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Rd, San Antonio, Texas 78238, USA
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47 citations as recorded by crossref.
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- Immersion meets instruction: a systematic review of teachers’ perspectives on virtual reality in geography education G. Vural & M. Hanus https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2026.2708670
- Detailed structural analysis of digital outcrops: A learning example from the Kermanshah-Qulqula radiolarite basin, Zagros Belt, Iran A. Cawood et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104489
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- Structural geology and cave evolution at the gate of prehistory: The backbone of Grotta Romanelli, southern Italy S. Tavani et al. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02961.1
- Navigating the terminological nuances of virtual field opportunities in the geosciences through multiple correspondence analysis E. Speir et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2025.2475428
- Using three-dimensional geospatial technology in primary school: students’ achievements, spatial thinking skills, cognitive load levels, experiences and teachers’ opinions T. Koc & F. Topu https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10810-x
- Capacity building in geospatial analysis through international cooperation in Pakistan D. Fugazza et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-026-00414-8
- Virtual field trips utilizing virtual outcrop: construction, delivery and implications for the future J. Pugsley et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-227-2022
- Teaching Algorithms and Programming First Year University Students on Base of Distance Learning System DL.GSU.BY M. Dolinsky https://doi.org/10.37394/232010.2022.19.6
- GC Insights: Designing for inquiry in virtual fieldwork R. Malm et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-9-139-2026
- The impact of online teaching on Geology degree programs during COVID-19: A case study from the University of Barcelona (Spain) G. Alías et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2165858
- Digital field representations as a holistic approach to experiential learning in High Arctic geoscience field education R. Horota et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-9-311-2026
- The use of immersive virtual reality for teaching fieldwork skills in complex structural terrains J. Harknett et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104681
- Learning outcomes, learning support, and cohort cohesion on a virtual field trip: an analysis of student and staff perceptions C. Bond et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-307-2022
- Multi-scale virtual field experience: sedimentology and stratigraphy of Grand Ledge, Michigan, USA M. Marshall & M. Higley https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-461-2021
- Immersive and interactive three-dimensional virtual fieldwork: Assessing the student learning experience and value to improve inclusivity of geosciences degrees L. Guillaume et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2200361
- Learning and Teaching Geological Field Skills in a Virtual World: Insights From an Undergraduate Virtual Fieldtrip in Kinlochleven, Scotland M. Genge et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/esss.2024.10128
- Smartphone assisted fieldwork: Towards the digital transition of geoscience fieldwork using LiDAR-equipped iPhones S. Tavani et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103969
- Open AR-Sandbox: A haptic interface for geoscience education and outreach F. Wellmann et al. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02455.1
- The Mid Atlantic Appalachian Orogen Traverse: a comparison of virtual and on-location field-based capstone experiences S. Whitmeyer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2803-2021
- Research on Teaching Geoscience with Virtual Field Experiences S. Semken et al. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060923-115406
- One Approach to Studying the Topic “Arithmetic Circuits: Design, Simulation and Debugging” M. Dolinsky https://doi.org/10.37394/232010.2023.20.16
- Enhanced structural analysis through a hybrid analogue-digital mapping approach: Integrating field and UAV survey with microtomography to characterize metamorphic rocks E. Fazio et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2024.105213
- Teaching, learning and assessment methods for sustainability education on the land–sea interface A. Bryhn & A. Belgrano https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-023-00120-2
- Integrating Google Maps into geography education: a course evaluation of student achievement, geographical thinking, and map reading skills S. Lalotra et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/23729333.2025.2506895
- Technology of differentiated training bases of algorithmization and programming on the first course of the university on the basis of the DL.GSU.BY system of distance learning M. Dolinsky & M. Dolinskaya https://doi.org/10.32517/0234-0453-2021-36-6-60-66
- Augmenting geological field mapping with real-time, 3-D digital outcrop scanning and modeling C. Walter et al. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02452.1
- Seismic-XR: Simulating and Visualizing Seismic Ground Motions in Mixed Reality S. Vaibhav et al. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220250169
- The importance of active-learning, student support, and peer teaching networks: A case study from the world’s longest COVID-19 lockdown in Melbourne, Australia S. McLaren et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2242071
- From coastal geomorphometry to virtual environments F. Gross et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1229489
- Nova versão da maquete 3D da Bacia do Paraná para ensino e difusão das Geociências M. Silveira et al. https://doi.org/10.20396/td.v20i00.8678345
- Geoscience Fieldwork in the Age of COVID-19 and Beyond: Commentary on the Development of a Virtual Geological Field Trip to Whitefish Falls, Ontario, Canada A. Peace et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120489
- Virtual field trip to the Esla Nappe (Cantabrian Zone, NW Spain): delivering traditional geological mapping skills remotely using real data M. de Paz-Álvarez et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022
- Multi-scale structural analysis of fracture networks in folded limestones: A case study from the Central Internal Jura, Switzerland J. Caldeira et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2026.105640
- The Rock Garden: a preliminary assessment of how campus-based field skills training impacts student confidence in real-world fieldwork T. Wong Hearing et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-7-17-2024
- Acknowledging the Intersectionality of Geoscientists With Disabilities to Enhance Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility I. Castro & C. Atchison https://doi.org/10.3389/esss.2024.10081
- West Spitsbergen fold and thrust belt: A digital educational data package for teaching structural geology R. Horota et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104781
- Integrating Virtual Reality Into a Structural Geology Curriculum: Two Longitudinal Case Studies of Blended Immersive Learning in Practice C. Gallagher et al. https://doi.org/10.1155/hbe2/5495369
- The Structural Geology Query Toolkit for digital 3D models: Design custom immersive virtual field experiences M. Needle et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104710
- Teaching with digital geology in the high Arctic: opportunities and challenges K. Senger et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-399-2021
- Towards Enhanced Understanding and Experience of Landforms, Geohazards, and Geoheritage through Virtual Reality Technologies in Education: Lessons from the GeoVT Project V. Vandelli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14050127
- Exploring Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Blended Learning: Trends and Insights G. Durak et al. https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.17.4.931
- V3Geo: a cloud-based repository for virtual 3D models in geoscience S. Buckley et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-67-2022
- The implementation of a virtual field trip to aid geological interpretation within an undergraduate volcanology course A. Watson et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2279016
47 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Benefits and challenges of online teaching: Lessons and perspectives gained during the COVID‐19 pandemic B. Wyatt et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/nse2.20114
- From a virtual field trip to geologically reasoned decisions in Yosemite Valley N. Barth et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-17-2022
- Benchmarking Different SfM-MVS Photogrammetric and iOS LiDAR Acquisition Methods for the Digital Preservation of a Short-Lived Excavation: A Case Study from an Area of Sinkhole Related Subsidence A. Corradetti et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14205187
- Immersion meets instruction: a systematic review of teachers’ perspectives on virtual reality in geography education G. Vural & M. Hanus https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2026.2708670
- Detailed structural analysis of digital outcrops: A learning example from the Kermanshah-Qulqula radiolarite basin, Zagros Belt, Iran A. Cawood et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104489
- Virtual field experiences in a web-based video game environment: open-ended examples of existing and fictional field sites M. Needle et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-251-2022
- Structural geology and cave evolution at the gate of prehistory: The backbone of Grotta Romanelli, southern Italy S. Tavani et al. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02961.1
- Navigating the terminological nuances of virtual field opportunities in the geosciences through multiple correspondence analysis E. Speir et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2025.2475428
- Using three-dimensional geospatial technology in primary school: students’ achievements, spatial thinking skills, cognitive load levels, experiences and teachers’ opinions T. Koc & F. Topu https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10810-x
- Capacity building in geospatial analysis through international cooperation in Pakistan D. Fugazza et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-026-00414-8
- Virtual field trips utilizing virtual outcrop: construction, delivery and implications for the future J. Pugsley et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-227-2022
- Teaching Algorithms and Programming First Year University Students on Base of Distance Learning System DL.GSU.BY M. Dolinsky https://doi.org/10.37394/232010.2022.19.6
- GC Insights: Designing for inquiry in virtual fieldwork R. Malm et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-9-139-2026
- The impact of online teaching on Geology degree programs during COVID-19: A case study from the University of Barcelona (Spain) G. Alías et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2165858
- Digital field representations as a holistic approach to experiential learning in High Arctic geoscience field education R. Horota et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-9-311-2026
- The use of immersive virtual reality for teaching fieldwork skills in complex structural terrains J. Harknett et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104681
- Learning outcomes, learning support, and cohort cohesion on a virtual field trip: an analysis of student and staff perceptions C. Bond et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-307-2022
- Multi-scale virtual field experience: sedimentology and stratigraphy of Grand Ledge, Michigan, USA M. Marshall & M. Higley https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-461-2021
- Immersive and interactive three-dimensional virtual fieldwork: Assessing the student learning experience and value to improve inclusivity of geosciences degrees L. Guillaume et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2200361
- Learning and Teaching Geological Field Skills in a Virtual World: Insights From an Undergraduate Virtual Fieldtrip in Kinlochleven, Scotland M. Genge et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/esss.2024.10128
- Smartphone assisted fieldwork: Towards the digital transition of geoscience fieldwork using LiDAR-equipped iPhones S. Tavani et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103969
- Open AR-Sandbox: A haptic interface for geoscience education and outreach F. Wellmann et al. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02455.1
- The Mid Atlantic Appalachian Orogen Traverse: a comparison of virtual and on-location field-based capstone experiences S. Whitmeyer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-12-2803-2021
- Research on Teaching Geoscience with Virtual Field Experiences S. Semken et al. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060923-115406
- One Approach to Studying the Topic “Arithmetic Circuits: Design, Simulation and Debugging” M. Dolinsky https://doi.org/10.37394/232010.2023.20.16
- Enhanced structural analysis through a hybrid analogue-digital mapping approach: Integrating field and UAV survey with microtomography to characterize metamorphic rocks E. Fazio et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2024.105213
- Teaching, learning and assessment methods for sustainability education on the land–sea interface A. Bryhn & A. Belgrano https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-023-00120-2
- Integrating Google Maps into geography education: a course evaluation of student achievement, geographical thinking, and map reading skills S. Lalotra et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/23729333.2025.2506895
- Technology of differentiated training bases of algorithmization and programming on the first course of the university on the basis of the DL.GSU.BY system of distance learning M. Dolinsky & M. Dolinskaya https://doi.org/10.32517/0234-0453-2021-36-6-60-66
- Augmenting geological field mapping with real-time, 3-D digital outcrop scanning and modeling C. Walter et al. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02452.1
- Seismic-XR: Simulating and Visualizing Seismic Ground Motions in Mixed Reality S. Vaibhav et al. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220250169
- The importance of active-learning, student support, and peer teaching networks: A case study from the world’s longest COVID-19 lockdown in Melbourne, Australia S. McLaren et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2242071
- From coastal geomorphometry to virtual environments F. Gross et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1229489
- Nova versão da maquete 3D da Bacia do Paraná para ensino e difusão das Geociências M. Silveira et al. https://doi.org/10.20396/td.v20i00.8678345
- Geoscience Fieldwork in the Age of COVID-19 and Beyond: Commentary on the Development of a Virtual Geological Field Trip to Whitefish Falls, Ontario, Canada A. Peace et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11120489
- Virtual field trip to the Esla Nappe (Cantabrian Zone, NW Spain): delivering traditional geological mapping skills remotely using real data M. de Paz-Álvarez et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-13-1-2022
- Multi-scale structural analysis of fracture networks in folded limestones: A case study from the Central Internal Jura, Switzerland J. Caldeira et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2026.105640
- The Rock Garden: a preliminary assessment of how campus-based field skills training impacts student confidence in real-world fieldwork T. Wong Hearing et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-7-17-2024
- Acknowledging the Intersectionality of Geoscientists With Disabilities to Enhance Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility I. Castro & C. Atchison https://doi.org/10.3389/esss.2024.10081
- West Spitsbergen fold and thrust belt: A digital educational data package for teaching structural geology R. Horota et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104781
- Integrating Virtual Reality Into a Structural Geology Curriculum: Two Longitudinal Case Studies of Blended Immersive Learning in Practice C. Gallagher et al. https://doi.org/10.1155/hbe2/5495369
- The Structural Geology Query Toolkit for digital 3D models: Design custom immersive virtual field experiences M. Needle et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104710
- Teaching with digital geology in the high Arctic: opportunities and challenges K. Senger et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-399-2021
- Towards Enhanced Understanding and Experience of Landforms, Geohazards, and Geoheritage through Virtual Reality Technologies in Education: Lessons from the GeoVT Project V. Vandelli et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14050127
- Exploring Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Blended Learning: Trends and Insights G. Durak et al. https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.17.4.931
- V3Geo: a cloud-based repository for virtual 3D models in geoscience S. Buckley et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-5-67-2022
- The implementation of a virtual field trip to aid geological interpretation within an undergraduate volcanology course A. Watson et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2023.2279016
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 31 Jul 2026
Short summary
Virtual outcrop models are increasingly used in geoscience teaching, but their efficacy as a training tool for 3D thinking has been little tested. We find that using a virtual outcrop increases the participants' ability to choose the correct geological block model. That virtual outcrops are viewed positively, but only in a blended learning environment and not as a replacement for fieldwork, and virtual outcrop use could improve equality, diversity and inclusivity in geoscience.
Virtual outcrop models are increasingly used in geoscience teaching, but their efficacy as a...
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