The Covid-19 pandemic occurred at a time of major revolution in the
geosciences – the era of digital geology. Digital outcrop models (DOMs)
acquired from consumer drones, processed using user-friendly photogrammetric software and shared with the wider audience through online platforms are a cornerstone of this digital geological revolution. Integration of DOMs with
other geoscientific data, such as geological maps, satellite imagery,
terrain models, geophysical data and field observations, strengthens their
application in both research and education. Teaching geology with digital
tools advances students' learning experience by providing access to
high-quality outcrops, enhancing visualization of 3D geological structures
and improving data integration. Similarly, active use of DOMs to integrate
new field observations will facilitate more effective fieldwork and
quantitative research. From a student's perspective, georeferenced and
scaled DOMs allow for an improved appreciation of scale and of 3D architecture, which is
a major threshold concept in geoscientific education.
DOMs allow us to bring geoscientists to the outcrops digitally, which is
particularly important in view of the Covid-19 pandemic that restricts
travel and thus direct access to outcrops. At the University Centre in
Svalbard (UNIS), located at 78∘ N in Longyearbyen in Arctic
Norway, DOMs are actively used even in non-pandemic years, as the summer
field season is short and not overlapping with the Bachelor “Arctic
Geology” course package held from January to June each year. In 2017, we at UNIS developed a new course (AG222 “Integrated Geological Methods: From Outcrop To Geomodel”) to encourage the use of emerging techniques like DOMs and data integration to solve authentic geoscientific challenges. In parallel, we have established the open-access Svalbox geoscientific portal, which forms the backbone of the AG222 course activities and provides easy access to a growing number of DOMs, 360∘ imagery, subsurface data and published geoscientific data from Svalbard. Considering the rapid onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, the Svalbox portal and the pre-Covid work on digital techniques in AG222 allowed us to rapidly adapt and fulfil at least some of the students' learning objectives during the pandemic. In this contribution, we provide an overview of the course development and share experiences from running the AG222 course and the Svalbox platform, both before and during the Covid-19 pandemic.
Introduction
From 13 March 2020 until the summer break, all university-level
teaching in Norway (including Longyearbyen, where the University Centre in
Svalbard (UNIS) is located) was conducted fully digitally due to the
Covid-19 pandemic. In Svalbard, this occurred at the worst possible time
with respect to the geology bachelor course schedule, as the sun only
returns to Longyearbyen on 8 March after a long dark season. March
and April represent the major spring field season when snowmobile can be
used to access outcrops. In the years leading up to the pandemic, we
developed a new methods-focused Bachelor-level course at UNIS, “AG222
Integrated Geological Methods: From Outcrop To Geomodel”, focusing on
digital geological techniques in order to extend our field season digitally.
This focus on enhancing the value of digital geological methods in education
prior to the pandemic was instrumental during the transition to digital
teaching of AG222 during the pandemic.
Digital outcrop models (DOMs) have been used for several decades,
particularly by the petroleum industry with its need for quantitative data
on reservoir architecture (Howell et al., 2014; Marques et al., 2020).
Initially, most DOMs were collected by ground- or helicopter-based lidar
(LIght Detection And Ranging) scanners (Hodgetts, 2013; Rittersbacher et
al., 2013; Buckley et al., 2008), often requiring expensive equipment and
significant processing resources, time and specialist skills. The emergence
of structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry (e.g., Westoby et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2016), essentially utilizing many overlapping
images to construct a DOM, has led to mainstream adoption of DOMs in both
teaching (e.g., Senger et al., 2021a; Bond and Cawood, 2021) and
research (e.g., Anell et al., 2016; Marques et al., 2020; Rabbel et al., 2018). We consider this a major technology-driven revolution in the
geosciences as introduced by Buckley et al. (2019a), similar in
significance to the adoption of 3D seismic acquisition that revolutionized
our understanding of the subsurface (Cartwright and Huuse, 2005).
To make full use of this digital geoscience revolution, we need to rethink
how geology is conducted and taught while maintaining focus on key skill
sets required by geologists in today's society. Field-based skills acquired
while in the field are central to any geoscientist's education (Mogk and
Goodwin, 2012), with digital tools allowing for more efficient field work. In
addition, integrating DOMs into a regional geological context using
complementary data sets and harvesting these expanding data for
quantitative studies, we can take the next step towards “big data
geoscience” (e.g., Guo et al., 2014; Bergen et al., 2019). Importantly, we should bring this geoscience revolution to geoscience students at an early stage, by developing skills-oriented courses where tasks are authentic to real-life problems faced by professional geologists.
Actively participating in the digital geoscience revolution has several
benefits, including improved accessibility for those that cannot participate
in field work (Whitmeyer et al., 2020; Bond and Cawood, 2021), a prolonged field season (Senger and Nordmo, 2020), potential for
field work preparation and thus more effective and targeted field work, and
reduction in associated environmental and economic costs of field campaigns.
It should, however, be stressed that geoscientific field work should not be
purely digital. Participation in traditional field work and field excursions
is a fundamental aspect of becoming a geoscientist (Mogk and Goodwin, 2012; Kastens et al., 2009), and digital tools should, in our opinion,
complement these rather than replace them.
Scientific literature on the application of photogrammetry in geology
increases rapidly (Fig. 1) in line with technological advances. More
importantly is that DOMs are readily available to the global geoscientific
community through a number of open-access repositories such as e-Rock (https://www.e-rock.co.uk/, last access: 7 September 2021; global coverage; Cawood and Bond, 2019), V3Geo (https://v3geo.com/, last access: 7 September 2021), Mosis HUB (https://mosis.vizlab.cc/en/xp/models, last access: 7 September 2021), Virtual Australia (https://ausgeol.org/atlas/, last access: 7 September 2021) or Svalbox (http://www.svalbox.no/, last access: 7 September 2021; Svalbard
coverage; Senger et al., 2021a). All of these are useful for teaching
purposes and have been heavily used during the Covid-19 pandemic, as they
provide examples of a number of lithologies and structural styles that can
serve as a backbone to digital teaching exercises.
The digital geology revolution, as illustrated by the exponential
growth in publications from 1990 to 2020 that include “photogrammetry” and
“geology”. Similarly, a marked increase is seen in publications including
“geology” and “Svalbard”. Data source: Google Scholar.
An important challenge yet to be fully addressed is that while we as a
geoscientific community collect more DOMs globally, actively using them for
further work is hampered by varying standards, available metadata and access
regulations to the actual models. Furthermore, utilizing DOMs to their full
potential requires site-specific knowledge of the regional significance of
the outcrop, thus often relying on geologists with local expertise and
efficiently harvesting the sheer volume of scientific knowledge about a
particular area such as Svalbard (Fig. 1).
From a broader perspective, we as educators also need to consider how best
to train geoscientists to exploit the digital geoscience revolution to their
advantage. The benefits are clear, but the challenges with numerous software
(some open source but most proprietary and costly) and using cross-software
workflows can also be daunting. In essence, we can ask ourselves the
question of how to best teach digital geosciences and whether we can teach
it in an active and integrated fashion.
In this contribution, we share our experiences of teaching digital
geosciences at UNIS, primarily related to a 15-ECTS bachelor-level course
(AG222 Integrated Geological Methods: From Outcrop To Geomodel; ECTS represents
European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System; 60 ECTS equals one full-time
study year) offered annually since 2018 that actively uses the Svalbox
geoscience platform. We outline our experience of both the course
development and incremental optimization, including a fully digital field
campaign organized in April 2020 during the Covid-19 pandemic. Finally, we
identify knowledge gaps that should be addressed to maximize the experience
from the Covid-19 pandemic to further improve geoscientific field teaching
in the high Arctic.
The Svalbox geoscience platform
Svalbox, developed at UNIS since 2017 and introduced by Senger et al. (2021a), is a platform that strives to integrate multi-physical and
multi-scale geoscientific data from Svalbard for more effective teaching and
research. Svalbox (Fig. 2; Table 1; Video 1 in the Video supplement;
Discover Svalbard's Geology with Svalbox available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJR-qp5XMsw&t=2s, last access: 7 September 2021) comprises both a
public web front end sharing most of the openly accessible data (Video 2 in
the Video supplement; Svalbox: Introducing the Svalbox.no online map portal available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTyL9eGmh7s, last access: 7 September 2021), and a UNIS-internal package integrating also classified data in thematic Petrel projects (Video 3 in the Video supplement; Svalbox – what is it and what data do we integrate? available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yLl4R7xTf0U, last access: 7 September 2021).
Overview of the Svalbox concept and its main elements. (a) Screenshot from the UNIS-internal part of Svalbox, illustrating the correlation of multi-scale sedimentological logs from the Festningen outcrop integrated within the Petrel platform. (b) Screenshot of the open-access part of Svalbox, with geological maps overlain with digital outcrop models, 360∘ imagery and geophysical data sets. Refer to Table 1 for details.
Overview of central elements collectively comprising Svalbox
elements.
Main element orPurposeData typeAccessibilityReference or linksubelementSvalDocsProvide accessible documentation on how to use Svalbox and a platform to share documents generated through Svalbox WorkflowsBest practice for software,DocumentationInternally at UNISdata acquisitionTeaching material/Relevant exercises andCourse materialOpenly accessiblehttps://unisvalbard.github.io/Geo-SfM/landing-page.htmle-learningfull course modules(last access: 7 September 2021)Virtual field tripsStorytelling based onStoriesOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/virtual-field-trips/ (last access: 7 September 2021)Svalbox data elementsLiteratureDynamically updatedArticles, theses,Openly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/bibliography/ (last access: 7 September 2021)list of literaturedocumentsincluded in SvalboxCase studiesActively use SvalboxArticles, thesesOpenly accessiblePublished case studies (Janocha et al., 2020; Larssen et al., 2020),in research projectscompiled on http://www.svalbox.no/publications/ (last access: 7 September 2021)ConferencePromote and market SvalboxPresentations,Openly accessibleExample from iEarth digital forum:presentationsand its applicationswebinarshttps://iearth.no/en/2020/06/19/iearth-digital-learning-forum-svalbox/and webinars(last access: 7 September 2021)Videos (SvalboxPromote and market SvalboxVideosOpenly accessiblehttps://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQ7tTHrKaKSBB7fxUpnabeQYouTube channel)and its applications(last access: 7 September 2021)File server (SvalFiles)Robust storage of all Svalbox data Acquired dataSystematically acquire DOMs ofPhotographs andOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/outcrops/ (last access: 7 September 2021)all key outcrops in Svalbardprocessed DOMsSample and drillPhotographs andOpenly accessibleBetlem et al. (2020b)core modelsprocessed modelsProvide overview imagery360∘ imageryOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/map/ (last access: 7 September 2021)from drone or handheld(photos and videos)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1XHoM1BlCM&feature=youtu.be360∘ cameras(last access: 7 September 2021)Acquire shallowElectrical resistivityInternally at UNISJanocha et al. (2020)geophysicstomography (ERT) andground-penetratingradar (GPR), includingintegrated with DOMsDocumentation ofFieldMove projects,Internally at UNISGPX tracks on SvalGISfield campaignsGPX (GPS exchangeformat) tracks
Continued.
Main element orPurposeData typeAccessibilityReference or linksubelementIntegrated dataPlace DOMs andBorehole dataInternally at UNIS,Petroleum and UNIS CO2 lab researchown observationsborehole locationsboreholes (Senger et al., 2019;in a regionalopenly accessibleOlaussen et al., 2019)perspectivevia websiteRegional terrain,Streamed from NPI,https://geodata.npolar.no/topography andopenly accessible(last access: 7 September 2021)satellite dataPublications, includingInternally at UNISDallmann (2015), growing list of includedGeoTiffs, profilespublications on Svalbox websiteand interpreted(http://www.svalbox.no/bibliography/,seismiclast access: 7 September 2021)Seismic, EMInternally at UNIS,e.g., Beka et al. (2017)(electromagnetic)profile locations openlyaccessible via websiteSedimentary logsInternally at UNIS, loghttp://www.svalbox.no/map/locations openly(last access: 7 September 2021)accessible via websiteGIS server (SvalGIS)Sharing of georeferenced data and metadata internally and externally through Svalbox.no DOMsOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/map/(last access: 7 September 2021)360∘ imageryOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/map/(last access: 7 September 2021)Borehole locationsOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/map/(last access: 7 September 2021)Geophysical profilesOpenly accessiblehttp://www.svalbox.no/map/(last access: 7 September 2021)DOMs on externalOpen access onhttps://v3geo.com/model/226repositoriespartner repositories(last access: 7 September 2021)
Most of the Svalbox elements can also be used by geoscience courses not run
by UNIS, and our ambition is to generate high-quality data sets and
educational material to bring Svalbard's exciting geological evolution to
classrooms around the world.
The AG222 course: establishment and incremental optimization
Being based in Svalbard, an Arctic archipelago located at 74–81∘ N, the AG222 course had from the onset been designed with the extreme
seasonal cycle in mind (Figs. 3, 4; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pjr-4L5zqE8, last access: 7 September 2021). The “Integrated Geological Methods: From Outcrop To Geomodel” (AG222) course was developed at UNIS in 2017 and was run annually from 2018 onwards. In 2018 and 2019, the course was run as planned from January to late May, with up to 20 students admitted each year and a significant field component (Senger et al., 2021a). In 2020, the
Covid-19 pandemic led to the second half of the course being run fully
digitally with students dispersed throughout Europe. Only 1 d of
fieldwork was possible, with the main field campaign to Billefjorden having
to be run virtually (Smyrak-Sikora et al., 2020a). In January 2021, the
course started as a fully digital course but with students in Longyearbyen.
Since no Covid-19 cases were reported from Svalbard until submission of this
paper in mid-March 2021, some physical teaching was implemented at UNIS in
February 2021, and field excursions were run as planned in March 2021.
Location of Svalbard and the Billefjorden Trough, which is the main field
area for the AG222 course. Winter and summer conditions of the same
mountain, Løvehovden (see https://toposvalbard.npolar.no/, last access: 7 September 2021, for exact
location), are shown for comparison.
Extreme seasonal cycle, as exemplified by the amount of daylight hours, temperature, wind speed and snow depth in Adventdalen near
Longyearbyen from 2017 to 2021 (meteorological source: https://klimaservicesenter.no/, last access: 7 September 2021). The AG222 course and field periods are
marked – these are characterized with maximum snow cover and lowest
temperatures and a rapid shift from no daylight to permanent daylight
during the course period.
The overall ambition central to the course development was to provide a new
course actively using emerging digital geological techniques applied to
geoscience challenges relevant to Svalbard, with the key outcome of
developing the problem-solving skills required by geology graduates in their
future careers, especially relevant in industry. An important component
focuses on the integration of different techniques and data sources, which
are important skill sets for professional geologists who also need to act
multidisciplinary to solve real-life geological challenges. Furthermore,
the course was designed to complement the existing course “The Tectonic and
Sedimentary History of Svalbard” (AG209; https://www.unis.no/course/ag-209-the-tectonic-and-sedimentary-history-of-svalbard/, last access: 7 September 2021)
running at the same time, attended by the same students and visiting
complementary field sites.
Transport to the localities is primarily by snowscooter, which often
increases engagement for many students (see Video 4 in the Video supplement;
AG222 excursion @ UNIS – February 2020 available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1XHoM1BlCM, last access: 7 September 2021). The Billefjorden
excursion involves a long (ca. 4–5 h) journey to the field area, relying
on good visibility as it involves crossing major glaciers exposed to bad
weather. Once the field area is reached, a base camp is established in a
hotel in Pyramiden, an abandoned coal mining settlement (Fig. 3). From
Pyramiden, all localities within the entire Billefjorden Trough are easily
accessible within short driving distance (see .gpx files with localities and
route in the Supplement). Geological stops are typically up to 1 h long, and summaries of the main learning topics from the visited localities are conducted through student presentations once back in the sheltered base camp.
The AG222 course: case studies
All course modules and assessments in the AG222 course are designed with a
strong emphasis on real-world application – i.e., they should represent
tasks that professional geologists working in the private or public sector
may face in their future careers. There is no final exam, and the course
grade reflects tasks conducted throughout the semester, combining both group
and individual assessments (Fig. 5). In this section, we present the main
course modules and associated assessments. Adequate material is provided in
the article and Table A2 to allow for implementation of these elsewhere.
Naturally, the exercises are focused on Svalbard's geological record, but
the concept can easily be applied in other areas. For educators and students
not familiar with Svalbard's geological evolution, Table A2 provides a list of key literature.
Overview of the central elements in the AG222 course; see Tables 2
and 3 for details. The four course modules are organized to build on each
other, with skills learnt in the first half of the course highly relevant
for the second half. The two main graded group assessments are very
intensive within a relatively short period, while the graded individual
assessment spans the entire semester giving student's flexibility to manage
their time. Field campaigns naturally follow the season, and each campaign
has a clear learning objective. BH represents Botneheia day field trip, NT represents
near town, PS represents Polarsyssel (boat excursion on Isfjorden).
Data mining and integration
AG222 starts in January, in the middle of the polar night. Before the light
and sun return in mid-February and early March respectively (Fig. 4), the
students familiarize themselves with the different tools (software and
online resources; see Table 3) and data sets they will be using throughout
the semester. In parallel, the sister course AG209 introduces Svalbard's
tectonostratigraphic evolution and main concepts such as source to sink.
Overview of the AG222 course modules.
Course module Overall learning outcomesData and toolsAssessments in AG2221Data mining andLearn to use Svalbox portal andSvalbox, online resources,Virtual field tripintegrationfind relevant data sets;SvalSIM, PetrelPractical exercisesdocument and use workflows2Digital modelsLearn to acquire, process andAgisoft Metashape, LIME,Practical exercisesinterpret digital modelsSvalbox and V3GeoVirtual field tripLicense claim application3Wireline logs,Learn what different geophysical andSeisRoX, PetrelPractical exercisesgeophysics andwell log methods are sensitive tosynthetic seismicbridge the gap from outcrop to geophysicsdatathrough seismic modelling4MechanicalLearn to collect own structural andFieldwork, cores,Scientific posterstratigraphysedimentological data from drillSvalboxpresented incores and outcropsa seminar
Overview of the key assessments in AG222.
Course assessment PurposeTools usedGroup/Contribution toindividualcourse gradeand grading1PracticalLearning skills by actively learning;Svalbox, QGIS, ArcGIS,I20 %exerciseskeeping track of activity;SvalSIM, StoryMaps,pass/failuse and document workflows;LIME, Petrel,online resources2Virtual fieldBuild – in a team of experts – a virtual field trip toPrimarily StoryMaps,G25 %tripan assigned locality with an enchanting storyline;with componentsA–Fbe creative, innovative and get to know your groupfrom assessment 13License claimPlay the “oil game” and find the best placePetrel, FieldMove,G30 %applicationto drill for petroleum in Billefjorden;field geologyA–Fmaximize your field experience bycollecting own data to complementpre-field-work digital work4ScientificHow did climate change in the geological past?Components fromI25 %posterWhere in Svalbard would you drill to conductassessment 1A–Ffurther palaeoclimatic research?
The exercises are built around practical tasks that are routinely used by
geologists working in Svalbard – including planning field campaigns in
different seasons (using geological maps, satellite imagery, oblique aerial
images and DOMs), investigating what research has already been conducted in
a given area (using literature and the ResearchInSvalbard database)m and
integrating all available databases and tools (e.g., Svalbox, SvalSIM,
StoryMaps, online resources). The skills acquired through the exercises are
strengthened by regular student presentations to their peers, generation
of “how-to” videos shared through the SvalDocs Wiki platform (which builds
up over time) and the course page on Microsoft Teams (which was implemented
from 2020 and is only accessible for the current AG222 students).
Furthermore, the rest of the AG222 course builds on the learnt practical
skills and actively uses these in tasks later during the semester.
Digital models: acquisition, processing, interpretation and integration
Cost-effective georeferenced digital outcrop models (DOMs) are a
breakthrough for geoscientific research and education, and they are naturally included as a central part of the AG222 course. Students learn the entire
workflow from image acquisition to integration of DOMs with complementary
data in the same area (Fig. 6). The dark season and snow cover prohibit
image acquisition of outcrops by the students, but photos of everyday
objects and oblique images from TopoSvalbard are used as input data. In
addition, photographs acquired during the summer field season by UNIS staff
are provided for generating DOMs.
Screenshots from interpretation and integration of digital outcrop models, including textured DOM, slope calculation, elevation display and integration of the DOM with regional terrain models and geological maps. The illustrated example is from Mediumfjellet (https://v3geo.com/model/142, last access: 7 September 2021; details on the structural geology are in Larsen, 2010, and Strand, 2015). (a) Regional digital elevation model and geological map (both courtesy of Norwegian Polar Institute) overlain by Mediumfjellet DOM. (b) Close up of digital outcrop model, with interpretations by Strand (2015). (c) View of DOM from the south-east, with colour-coding representing the slope angle.
DOM processing is taught using a custom-build online e-learning module
(https://unisvalbard.github.io/Geo-SfM/landing-page.html, last access: 7 September 2021) openly shared on the GitHub repository. Agisoft Metashape Professional is used for the SfM processing and is also used for line interpretations in research projects at UNIS. In the AG222 course, models are exported to LIME (Buckley et al., 2019b) for interpretation and integration. In LIME, students make measurements and observations using basic lines, orientation planes, panels and points of interest (see https://www.virtualoutcrop.com/resources/videos, last access: 7 September 2021, for details). Later, they can integrate terrain models, maps and remote sensing imagery to give
regional context and appreciate the variations in scale between different
data sets. They also create panel interpretations (Buckley et al., 2019b) and
present a characterization of their selected DOM in group presentations. The
Svalbox database (Senger et al., 2021a) provides the students with an
overview of the available DOMs from Svalbard and allows them to access these
for their research projects. DOMs are all available on the Svalbox online
portal (http://www.svalbox.no/map/, last access: 7 September 2021), and selected ones are also uploaded
to V3Geo, including the “flagship” DOM of Festningen (https://v3geo.com/viewer/index.html#/226, last access: 7 September 2021).
Overview of key resources, data sets and software used in the AG222
course.
ResourceCourse moduleAccessibilityUsed inReference or SourceCovid-19-relateddigital teaching?Svalbox onlineData miningAnywhereYesSenger et al. (2021a)portalandwithintegrationinternetSvalbox PetrelData miningUNIS PCUsed in physicalSenger et al. (2021a)projectsandteaching by studentsintegrationbut only by lecturersin digital teachingSvalbox GISData miningUNISYesSenger et al. (2021a)projects (ArcGISandnetworkhttp://www.svalbox.no/map/and QGIS)integration(last access: 7 September 2021)OnlineData miningAnywhereYeshttps://toposvalbard.npolar.no/ (last access: 7 September 2021)geospatialandwithhttps://geokart.npolar.no/Html5Viewer/index.html?viewer=Svalbardkartetresourcesintegrationinternet(last access: 7 September 2021)https://researchinsvalbard.no/ (last access: 7 September 2021)http://www.svalbox.no/ (last access: 7 September 2021)https://factmaps.npd.no/factmaps/3_0/ (last access: 7 September 2021)https://geodata.npolar.no/ (last access: 7 September 2021)SvalSIMData miningAnywhereYes, in both yearsSaether et al. (2004)andintegrationAgisoftDigitalUNIS PCYes, the sessionJanocha et al. (2020)Metashapemodelswas heldin FebruaryLIMEDigitalAnywhereYes, the LIME sessionBuckley et al. (2019b)modelswas held in February.In person in 2020, andhybrid (guest lecturerdigital, studentsin person) in 2021e-learningDigitalAnywhereYes, in 2021https://unisvalbard.github.io/Geo-SfM/landing-page.htmlmodulesmodelswith(last access: 7 September 2021), Betlem et al. (2020a)internetSmartphone/iPadAnywhereOnly for initialhttp://www.svalbox.no/software-apps/appspart(last access: 7 September 2021)Digital fieldAnywhereNo (but data collectedSenger and Nordmo (2020)notebookin 2019 were provided)
Examples of virtual field trips (VFTs) available on Svalbox.
VFT titlePurposeURLRepository of virtualAccess point for VFTs onhttp://www.svalbox.no/virtual-field-trips/field tripsthe Svalbox portal(last access: 7 September 2021)Geology of SvalbardMain landing page forhttps://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/36cf2935a6754422bba794edeea05b9fSvalbox VFTs/Journeys(last access: 7 September 2021)Outcrop of the week –Short teacher-provided VFThttps://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/bb3fa994b60d44a9b1312e6c2784957cFestningento familiarize students(last access: 7 September 2021)with StoryMaps featuresDiscovering theTeacher-providedhttps://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/5efc4f9559c348f796e643b965a5b5e9fossilized worldexample of(last access: 7 September 2021)of Festningena longer VFTVirtual field trips
Virtual field trips (VFTs) integrate numerous elements (digital outcrop
models, publications, 360∘ imagery, photos, geological maps, satellite
imagery, etc.) within a geological story line suited for a specific target
audience. VFTs can be actively presented to an audience or made accessible
for individuals to follow at their own pace. Building a VFT is as rewarding
as following one, as it fosters creativity and group work. Furthermore, the
oral presentation of the VFT by the student groups simulates authentic
experiences of presenting at international conferences.
A central assignment in AG222 (25 % of course grade) involves the students developing a VFT to a given location and presenting it to a wider audience (i.e., the AG222 class, AG222 guest lecturers and UNIS geology staff). The task is conducted from the onset of the course and finalizes by the end of February when the light slowly returns to Longyearbyen. As such, the students only use provided material and data to develop a catchy and
creative VFT. From 2018 to 2020, VFTs were organized as in-person
presentations, where all elements were linked through a standard
presentation (PowerPoint or Prezi). From 2021, we have adopted the online
ArcGIS StoryMaps approach to develop the VFTs (Table 5). StoryMaps is a commercial
product, but a site license is available at UNIS for its unlimited usage.
This allows for more creativity with respect to directly embedding DOMs, videos
and other central elements. As a further benefit, the resulting VFTs are
permanently available on the Svalbox portal (http://www.svalbox.no/virtual-field-trips/, last access: 7 September 2021) for further exposure and to
contribute to a growing VFT database from Svalbard. Table 4 provides the key public-domain resources and tools required to
design the Svalbard VFT experience.
Synthetic seismic data
Seismic modelling allows for the direct correlation of outcrops with seismic
data, aiding to quantify what geological features are visible on the latter.
By creating geomodels from digital outcrop models, students also truly
appreciate several factors that control seismic images. Building geomodels
involves conducting line interpretations on digital outcrops to establish
the structures, then assigning elastic properties (P- and S-wave velocity
and density) to these from literature or borehole data crossing the same
stratigraphic interval of interest. Once both structures and elastic
properties are in place, seismic modelling is applied (e.g., Rabbel et
al., 2018; Anell et al., 2016). Noise is usually also added for more
realistic results (Lubrano-Lavadera et al., 2019). The synthetic seismic
profiles are then overlain on the DOM and class discussions focus on
understanding what geological features are discernible and how seismic
acquisition parameters (primarily frequency and illumination angle) affect
seismic imaging.
In AG222, the Triassic succession at Kvalpynten in south-western Edgeøya
(https://v3geo.com/model/90, last access: 7 September 2021; Anell et al., 2016; Smyrak-Sikora et al., 2020b) was primarily used from 2018 to 2020 as a very well-exposed and well-studied case study (Fig. 7). The “seismic-scale” outcrop displays two contrasting geological features. The lower part of the outcrop is dominated by growth faults with small half-grabens infilled by siliciclastic syn-sedimentary deposits. In the upper part, very low-angle clinoforms related to the progradation of the world's largest delta plain in the Triassic (Klausen et al., 2019) are barely apparent even at the ca. 7 km long outcrop.
Examples from seismic modelling of the Kvalpynten digital outcrop
model (https://v3geo.com/model/90, last access: 7 September 2021) conducted by the 2019 AG222
class on a ca. 2 km long part of the outcrop. (a) Interpretation of digital outcrop model using LIME. (b) Assignment of elastic parameters to specific lithologies. (c) Seismic modelling under varying dominant frequencies using SeisRoX. (d) Direct overlay of the seismic model on the DOM.
Billefjorden claim application
The license claim application is an intensive group assessment worth 30 %
of the AG222 grade, conducted in an intensive 3.5-week period building
around the main 4 d AG222 field excursion to the Billefjorden Trough. The
application follows a strict template, as do authentic license applications,
and this challenges the students to compile a convincing overview of the petroleum system elements to secure a fictive claim in the field area (Fig. 8). Furthermore, an exact drilling location and well prognosis to 1300–1600 m depth must be provided, along with subsurface correlations and environmental considerations relating to petroleum exploration of this sensitive area.
Examples from the Billefjorden license claim assignment, conducted
by the 2019 AG222 class. (a) Top reservoir structure contour map with fault zones and the area to be fictionally claimed (red rectangle). (b) Well prognosis, illustrating key petroleum system elements like source and reservoir rocks. (c) East–west cross section across the proposed drill site.
This assignment is by far the most authentic of all AG222 tasks, as the only
oil discovery in Svalbard was reported from the area, which is a consequence of coal
exploration by the Russian company Trust Arktikugol in the 1990s (Senger
et al., 2019). Indeed, there were concrete plans as late as 2004 to drill a
serious petroleum exploration borehole in the area (Senger et al., 2019).
Obviously, these plans never materialized, but the AG222 students can
experience this authenticity and make full use of their geological
understanding to compete between the groups for the best overall license
claim application.
The students integrate pre-existing material to learn as much as they can
about the Billefjorden Trough prior to the field excursion, including
exposure to DOMs from summer field work and a comprehensive Petrel project
of the basin (including wells, published cross sections, digital terrain
model, satellite imagery, geological maps). During the field campaign,
students get both a basin-scale exposure at overview stops but also collect
samples and information (structural and sedimentological data) to be used in
their application. The digital field notebook (Senger and Nordmo, 2020) is used to organize each group's field data, and the resulting FieldMove project is a compulsory appendix to the license claim application.
Near-town geology: drill core and outcrop sedimentology and structures
A core shed near UNIS stores more than 60 km of drill cores collected by the
local mining company SNSK (Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani) for coal exploration and for scientific purposes
(e.g., UNIS CO2 lab; Olaussen et al., 2019). The stratigraphy covers
the successions outcropping in the mountainsides near Longyearbyen. Since
geologists from the mining company have contributed to teaching at UNIS for
almost 2 decades, it was natural to make this unique material available
for student learning. Accompanied by the company geologist, students visit
the shed to get first-hand knowledge about diamond drilling in the high
Arctic, and sedimentary drill core logging. They practice detailed logging
of cores and logging under time pressure, role-playing that bad weather is
coming and the helicopter waiting to pick them up, the latter often the case
for real Arctic drill site geologists. These exercises help them to
understand the geology of the surrounding mountain, and they build the basis
for later field-logging exercises, be it outcrop scale or making rough logs
of mountainsides from the distance.
By early May, the snow begins to melt, and outcrops near Longyearbyen allow
for conducting some meaningful fieldwork along one of Svalbard's arguably
best exposures: the ca. 2 km continuous outcrop transect between Longyearbyen and the airport. The transect excellently exposes a succession of
alternating sandstones, siltstones and shales of Early Cretaceous age, thus
enabling high-resolution bed-to-bed scale investigations, as well as lateral
tracing and mapping of depositional elements. In addition, ca. 4.5 km of
drill cores are available from parts of the Mesozoic succession drilled by
the UNIS CO2 lab project (Olaussen et al., 2019). These cores
penetrate the same succession that is exposed in the Flyplassveien outcrop.
The combination of outcrops and drill cores allow for a detailed and
integrated sedimentological and structural characterization of the
investigated succession. The students focus on and practice various methods
for acquiring and presenting sedimentological and structural data.
Structural data are, for example, collected both with a traditional compass
and by using digital tools like tablets and smartphones (Novakova and Pavlis, 2017). In recent years, selected drill cores are digitized using SfM photogrammetry (Betlem et al., 2020b) and shared on Svalbox.
The collected scan-line data are discussed in regard to the mechanical
stratigraphy of the succession, particularly focusing on how bed thickness
and lithology correlate with fracture intensity. In addition, field data are
integrated with DOM data to extend the area of investigation to include the
inaccessible parts of the outcrop. This also increases the length of the
field season that is notoriously short in the high Arctic.
Palaeoclimate drilling poster presentation
Svalbard's geological record provides a unique window into deep-time
palaeoclimatic events of global significance (Senger et al., 2021b). The
Permian–Triassic boundary (P-Tr; Zuchuat et al., 2020) and the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM; Dypvik et al., 2011) are just
two examples of globally significant events preserved in Svalbard's rock
record and studied in detail in drill cores from Svalbard. The P-Tr boundary
was targeted by the last drilling in Svalbard, with two ca. 100 m deep
research boreholes drilled and fully cored at Deltadalen in 2014 (Zuchuat et al., 2020).
The AG222 students finalize the course with an individual poster presentation that presents a “Deltadalen-style” drilling proposal for a 100–200 m deep palaeoclimate research borehole to target an assigned interval of interest (Snowball Earth; end Permian mass extinction; Early Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events; PETM). As with the petroleum drilling in
Billefjorden, the students need to utilize all their skill sets to find a
suitable location and propose a realistic concrete target including a well
prognosis. The assignment is individual, and its presentation at the final
day of the AG222 course provides an authentic experience in presenting
posters at scientific conferences.
DiscussionDigital outcrop models – a game changer for digital teaching
DOMs are in our opinion a cornerstone of the ongoing geoscience revolution
and a game changer for digital geoscience teaching methods (Fig. 9). DOMs
are multi-scaled features and thus allow for the easy appreciation of
resolution (i.e., pixel resolution, in other words the size of the smallest
discernible objects), scale (i.e., size of the DOM) and perspective (i.e.,
viewing angle and exaggeration). DOMs can be generated across all scales,
from seismic-scale outcrops to high-resolution drill core or hand sample
models, and facilitate quantitative geology, including unprecedented
possibilities for making realistic outcrop-based geological models (e.g., Larssen et al., 2020). Integration of DOMs with shallow
geophysical data, e.g ground-penetrating radar (GPR), also opens up to
“see” geology beyond the outcrop, as illustrated with the palaeokarst at
Fortet (Video 5 in the Video supplement; The Billefjorden Trough STOP 6-update available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dp2m8o16SoQ, last access: 7 September 2021) (Janocha et al., 2020). Along with the explosion in cost-effective DOM acquisition from drones, the ease of sharing them with the global geoscience community through a multitude of 3D platforms (e.g., Sketchfab or V3Geo) and rendering libraries (e.g., Potree or Unity) truly opens up for global digital geology teaching.
Applications of DOMs for concrete usage in teaching.
DOMs complement traditional field data collection by facilitating data
acquisition in inaccessible areas, provide greater structural data sampling
and reduce time spent in the field (Nesbit et al., 2020; Pringle et al., 2006; McCaffrey et al., 2010). Furthermore, DOMs are ideal for training and teaching geology, as they allow for appreciation of structures from different
perspectives and vertical exaggerations, student–teacher discussions in a
controlled indoor environment, and (digital) accessibility to the field
irrespective of the participants field experience or economic and cultural
background.
DOMs, particularly when derived from drone-based photographs, make
inaccessible outcrops safely accessible without the risk of rock fall,
avalanches, climate issues, steep and rocky terrains, or wildlife (e.g.,
polar bears, rattlesnakes). Precisely acquired DOMs allow geologists to
extract and present quantitative and qualitative geological information and
detailed measurements without the need to directly access them (Larssen et al., 2020; Marques et al., 2020; Senger et al., 2015a; Nesbit et al., 2020, 2018). This approach increases the areas from which
measurements can be made, which means that more statistical information can
be collected, increasing the sample size and therefore reducing errors in
statistical analysis (Fabuel-Perez et al., 2010; García-Sellés
et al., 2011; Hodgetts, 2013).
In the same way, new attributes can be generated to highlight subtle
features, helping in the interpretation by providing the basis for automated
mapping approaches (McCaffrey et al., 2005, 2010). These either reduce the time needed for fieldwork or make fieldwork more efficient with more data acquired over the same time interval. For comparison, Ogata et al. (2014) present >9000 structural measurements of fractures collected on a sandstone in Svalbard over a 1-month field period, while recently acquired DOMs in the same area would exponentially reduce the time needed to collect the same data. The reduced cost of fieldwork by active use of DOMs and VFTs is also considerable, both in
industry and academia. This is especially relevant when entire teams should
investigate outcrops together and discuss while observing the outcrop.
However, DOMs are still not a replacement for traditional field trips but a
tool that can improve the field experience (Hodgetts, 2013),
making it an efficient way to integrate and visualize multi-scalar surface
and subsurface rock data in desktop applications. The increased use of
immersive virtual reality (iVR) already provides authentic digital field
experiences (Gonzaga et al., 2018), and only the resolution and
spatial limits of individual DOMs set the boundaries of what is possible.
Course development and integration with Svalbox portal
The AG222 course was developed in parallel with the Svalbox portal, and this
synergy will be optimized also in the coming years (Fig. 10). The
skills-based course requires relevant and authentic data sets for the
authentic experiences, which is provided through Svalbox. On the other hand,
the AG222 course provides content to the Svalbox portal, in particular
virtual field trips developed by both staff and students. Similarly,
UNIS-affiliated research projects including MSc and PhD students contribute
data sets to Svalbox, in particular DOMs and 360∘ images. Over time, we envision that this will lead to a rapid increase in DOMs from Svalbard openly available for the global geoscience community.
Schematic diagram of the synergies between the AG222 course (and
other UNIS courses and research activities) and the Svalbox portal.
It must be noted that the AG222 course is inspired by state-of-the-art
training offered in the petroleum industry, with expert teams working
together to solve authentic “real-world” problems. It is thus imperative
that the skills the students acquire as part of the course are applicable in
the students' future careers irrespective of sector. In addition to the
technical skills learnt during the course, extra skills such as data
management, group work and handling intensive periods with heavy workloads
are important elements to make the AG222 course as authentic as possible.
Field-based training for the petroleum industry and communication to the broader society
We can regard Svalbard as the exposed part of the subsurface of the Barents
Sea, with ongoing petroleum exploration and production. UNIS has over the
past decade run excursions for the oil industry, particularly to localities
exhibiting Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous strata. Those strata are linked
to the proven reservoirs and source rocks in the efficient petroleum systems
in the southwestern Barents Sea petroleum province. The main purpose of
these field-based educational expeditions for the industry is to train the
geological and geophysical staff in the regional overview of the basins,
tectonism, architecture and scale of reservoirs. The excursion/field trip is
run by a medium-sized ship capable of accommodating 20 passengers. Although
geological guides are handed out, presentations are given in the evening of
what to see the next day and are repeated the next morning, it is
challenging to present the localities as relevant for the normal “work
station scale” (e.g., Petrel, Landmark) at the office. However, if the
participants upfront on their own computer play with a DOM of the specific
outcrop to be visited, it will be possible to better understand the scale and
architecture of the geology to be visited. We thus foresee enhanced use of
Svalbox in such targeted field campaigns, particularly when the Covid-19
pandemic passes and such excursions once again become feasible.
Consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic on the AG222 assessment
related to the license claim application.
Covid-19 implications
On 13 March 2020, the Covid-19 pandemic forced the cancellation of all fieldwork at UNIS. Seventeen bachelor students were able to continue remotely as courses running at the time were continued digitally.
The original plan included a 4 d long snowmobile field trip to the
Carboniferous rift basin located in central Spitsbergen. The structure of
the excursion was kept as close to the original plan as possible (Fig. 11).
Instead of the work at a real outcrop, students were tasked with preparing
“digital geological stops” of assigned sites throughout the basin and
present these to the entire class through a publicly available video (Green
box in Fig. 11; see the playlist here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Izk4yhEN2Y&list=PLaERIU24EpWf93UbEB701vFTqwBPG6CpY, last access: 7 September 2021). The
videos included DOMs from Svalbox, geological maps, aerial images, Google
Earth overviews, georeferenced photos, and measurements and notes from
FieldMove projects compiled by students taking the course in previous years.
Following the presentation of these field guides, additional information and
discussions were facilitated by the lecturers. The students, in groups of
3–4, were tasked to identify potential hydrocarbon prospects and apply for
a fictional claim application in Billefjorden, as described above.
The qualitative feedback collected from the students and teachers clearly
points out that the virtual field excursions cannot replace real field
experience. Principal geological tests such as Mohs hardness tests,
grain/crystal size analysis or ground-truthing structural orientation
measurements, which are a foundation of bachelor-level courses, cannot be
performed virtually. Virtual field excursions can, however, contribute to
the field-based education and serve as an introduction to the study area and
function as a substitute for snow-covered or inaccessible localities or when
a planned field excursion needs to be adapted to harsh weather conditions.
Ultimately, our experience suggests that there are real benefits to virtual
excursions only if it is combined with real field work of the same or
comparable geology.
Future perspectives
The AG222 course will continue to be offered every year and thus allows
for sustainable and incremental optimization through integrating emerging tools.
At the moment, we are developing open-access online modules for all the
course modules, inspired by the successful Geo-SfM course module (Table 1).
In addition, we are continuously testing new tools, for instance smartphones
and tablet with in-built lidar scanners (e.g., iPhone 12 Pro, 3D printers,
VR technologies, thermal cameras, drone-mounted sensors), to push the
boundaries of digital geological techniques. Perhaps more importantly than
testing and sharing experiences from new hardware are the efforts to outline
best practice documents for the many important cross-software workflows,
along the from outcrop to geomodel framework.
Our overall vision is that the Svalbox platform will facilitate free and
easy access to all the collected data elements. This innovative approach
building on FAIR (i.e., findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable)
data principles (Mons et al., 2017) and the open data movement will
exponentially enhance the use of Svalbox DOMs beyond UNIS and contribute to
squeezing out more information from already collected data. This approach
applies not just to the data sets but also tools to be used. Both StoryMaps
and Petrel are licensed software, though with academic rates (Petrel is, for
instance, at the time being available for free for academic institutions
like UNIS). In the future, we envision testing and potentially adopting
open-source solutions for the entire Svalbox value chain. The ongoing
digitization efforts of the subsurface (e.g., Nguyen et al., 2020),
of vital importance for many geo-energy applications (e.g., petroleum
exploration and production, CO2 storage, geothermal energy, gas and
nuclear waste storage), will be able to use DOMs from a range of lithologies
to test and train algorithms to facilitate the (semi-)automatic
interpretation of the outcrops, including machine learning and big data
analyses. Furthermore, geoscientists will ideally be able to put together
all Svalbox elements into thematic virtual field trips at a click of a
button. Similarly, educators at UNIS and beyond can already now use Svalbox
elements to generate online and class-based course modules. As an example,
UNIS staff are currently involved in developing two course modules,
“Deep-time paleoclimate in the Svalbard rock record” and “Petroleum
systems of Svalbard”, to be offered also to students not physically in
Svalbard.
Summary and conclusion
In this contribution, we have outlined a Bachelor-level course on integrated geological methods developed at the world's northernmost university in Longyearbyen, Svalbard. The focus on digital tools, and in particular digital outcrops, not only extends the short Arctic field season but also facilitated running the second half of the course fully digitally during the global Covid-19 pandemic in 2020.
We have provided an overview of the main course elements. We conclude that
the digital geoscience revolution is among us and that we as educators need
to embrace it – not to replace traditional fieldwork but to complement it
and exploit the synergies. There is no better place in the world than
Svalbard to do this – as digital geology also significantly enhances our
field season, and the geology of Svalbard is truly a playground for any
geologist. The Svalbox portal is our contribution to open up this playground
to the global geoscientific community.
Key parameters of the presented AG222 course.
Course60 ECTS within general natural science, of which 30 ECTS within the field of geology/geosciences. requirements:Enrolment in a programme at Bachelor level. AcademicThe geological history of the Svalbard archipelago is a story of how tectonic and content:climatic processes have affected sedimentation since the Caledonian orogeny, and serves as a “window” to the Barents shelf hydrocarbon province to the south. The sparsely vegetated, well exposed and in places well-studied outcrops provide a unique opportunity for entry-level geologists to get an understanding of how geological field data are collected in the field and analysed in the office. In addition, geophysical data are integrated to enhance the holistic understanding of a particular area. Authenticity is stressed throughout the course, with practical problems to solve resolving the numerous fields requiring the robust characterization of the subsurface, including coal mining, geological CO2 storage, hydrocarbon exploration, underground gas storage, geothermal exploitation, ore exploration, etc. LearningUpon completing the course, the students will be able to conduct focused geological field data collection in small groups, be familiar and use a broad outcomes:range of geological and geophysical methods, and actively use these data to produce a realistic geological model of the subsurface. Knowledge Upon completing the course, the students will – develop a basic understanding of geological field mapping techniques (e.g., stratigraphic and structural mapping at outcrop and core scale); – develop a basic understanding of geophysical data interpretation techniques (e.g., seismic, electric methods, wire-line log interpretation); – actively use modern tools (e.g., photogrammetry to construct virtual outcrops, industry-standard software for both integration and seismic modelling) to link geology and geophysics together; – be introduced to emerging technologies relevant for geological fieldwork, including digital outcrops, virtual reality and integration of various data. Skills Upon completing the course, the students will be able to do the following: – be able to work together to solve realistic and authentic subsurface characterization problems – improve the understanding of the geology of an area by collecting relevant new data in the field and integrating it with pre-existing information and present their findings to the class – get an authentic experience of how subsurface characterization is conducted in practice, where the key uncertainties lie and how relevant geological know-how can directly or indirectly improve the geomodel. General competence Upon completing the course, the students will: – gain first-hand experience of actively working both individually and in small groups – improve the presentation skills by presenting their work to their peers and creatively tackling the set problems. LearningThe course will be very practical oriented, with a relatively small number of introduction and overview lectures complemented by practical activities:exercises carried out by the students both individually and in small groups. These exercises will focus on sedimentology and structural analysis (of cores and near-town outcrops), geophysics (seismic and non-seismic interpretation), well log interpretation, geomodelling and data integration. Students will participate in a whole class excursion in Svalbard where each group will be presenting a selected geological field site to their peers. Total lecture hours: 16 h Total practical exercises/PC lab work: 60 h Fieldwork/excursions: ca 3 d with overnight stay, up to 3 d excursions Course length: 20 weeks CourseAll compulsory learning activities (i.e., Excursions and group field work) must be approved in order to be registered for assessment:the final assessments. Assessment method:Percentage of final grade:Practical exercises (individual work)20 %Digital field report from excursion (group work)30 %Presentation of virtual field trip (group work)25 %Presentation of scientific poster (individual work)25 %Course costsNo tuition fee; for students:Semester fee of ca. NOK 500; Contribution to food on overnight stays (NOK 200 d-1, max 4 d). Course costsCa. NOK 440 000 yr-1, excluding salary of UNIS staff for UNIS:
Key literature on Svalbard's geological evolution and main thematic topics.
Main themeSelected key referencesOverall introduction toWorsley (2008), chaps. 6–8 in Dallmann (2015)Svalbard's geologyCO2 storage effortsOlaussen et al. (2019), Braathen et al. (2012), Senger et al. (2015b), Mørk (2013)in SvalbardPetroleum explorationNøttvedt et al. (1993), Senger et al. (2019)Coal exploration and productionSenger et al. (2019), chap. 11 in Dallmann (2015), Harland and Anderson (1997)Deep-time palaeoclimate inDypvik et al. (2011) – PETMSvalbard's geologicalHarding et al. (2011) – PETMrecordGreenwood et al. (2010) – Eocene Arctic rainforestUhl et al. (2007) – Fossil leaves in the Eocene of SpitsbergenSpielhagen and Tripati (2009) – Paleocene climate fluctuationsVickers et al. (2016) – Early Cretaceous climateMidtkandal et al. (2016) – Aptian global anoxiaHurum et al. (2016) – Barremian dinosaurs and climateJelby et al. (2020) – Jr-Cr boundary and isotope signalsKoevoets et al. (2016) – Jurassic isotope excursionsKlausen et al. (2020) – Late Triassic delta and dinosaursPott (2012) – Late Triassic palaeo-floraPaterson and Mangerud (2020) – Mid-Late Triassic palynology and climateWignall et al. (2016) – Early Triassic anoxiaZuchuat et al. (2020) – PT boundaryBond et al. (2015) – Mid Permian mass extinctionBlomeier et al. (2011) – Permian change from warm/arid to cool climateHanken and Nielsen (2013) – L.Carb.-E.Perm carbonate build-ups and climate variationsHüneke et al. (2001) – L.Carb.-E.Perm carbonates and climate variationsBlomeier et al. (2009) – L.Carb. carbonates and Gondwana eustatic cyclesBerry and Marshall (2015) – Devonian forestFairchild et al. (2016) – Late Proterozoic glacial carbonateKnoll and Swett (1987) – Pre-Cambrian to Cambrian transitionHambrey (1982) - Late Precambrian tilliteBjørnerud (2010) – Kapp Lyell tillite (Neoproterozoic)PaleogeneDallmann (2015), chap. 6.10Helland-Hansen and Grundvåg (2021)CretaceousDallmann (2015), chap. 6.9Grundvåg et al. (2019)Early Cretaceous magmatismSenger et al. (2014)JurassicDallmann (2015), chap. 6.8Koevoets et al. (2019)Rismyhr et al. (2018)TriassicDallmann (2015), chap. 6.7Anell et al. (2014)Lord et al. (2017)PermianDallmann (2015), chap. 6.6Blomeier et al. (2013)Sorento et al. (2020)Matysik et al. (2018)CarboniferousDallmann (2015), chap. 6.5Smyrak-Sikora et al. (2019)Ahlborn and Stemmerik (2015)DevonianDallmann (2015), chap. 6.4Pre-DevonianDallmann (2015), chap. 6.2 and 6.3Code availability
Code is available via the Svalbox GitHub repository, https://github.com/svalbox/Cookbook (last access: 7 September 2021, Betlem, 2019).
Data availability
Digital outcrop models are available via http://www.svalbox.no/map (last access: 7 September 2021, Senger and Betlem, 2021), and Svalbox Petrel projects are available from Kim Senger for non-commercial projects. Some models are available via https://v3geo.com/ (last access: 7 September 2021, V3Geo, 2021).
Video supplement
Both the Svalbox portal and AG222 course are visually presented in a series of videos on the Svalbox YouTube channel (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQ7tTHrKaKSBB7fxUpnabeQ, last access 20 September 2021).
Svalbox overview video: Discover Svalbard's Geology with
Svalbox (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJR-qp5XMsw&t=2s, last access: 7 September 2021; Janocha et al., 2021).
The 360∘ video from 2020 Botneheia excursion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1XHoM1BlCM (last access: 7 September 2021; Horota, 2020).
The supplement related to this article is available online at: https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-4-399-2021-supplement.
Author contributions
KS conceptualized the paper. PB, TB, JJ and KS curated the data. Funding was acquired by KS, IL, SB and SO. The software was arranged by PB and SB. KS, RKH, AS, TB, JJ, LK and RMJ visualized the project. KS wrote and prepared the original draft. The review and editing of the paper was done by KS, PB, SAG, RKH, SJB, AS, MMJ, TB, JJ,
KO, LK, RMJ, IL, SMC and SO.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Disclaimer
Publisher’s note: Copernicus Publications remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Special issue statement
This article is part of the special issue “Virtual geoscience education resources”. It is not associated with a conference.
Acknowledgements
The AG222 course is fully financed by UNIS, with significant course and
Svalbox development costs financed through numerous co-operation grants from
the University of the Arctic (UArctic). Digital outcrop models freely
available on Svalbox are acquired using both UNIS internal funds and
external projects, notably the Research Centre for Arctic Petroleum
Exploration (ARCEx), the Norwegian CCS Research Centre (NCCS), the Suprabasins
project led by the University of Oslo and the Petroleum Research School of
Norway (NfiP). The iEarth Centre for Integrated Earth Science Education
provided seed funds to develop a virtual field trip to Festningen. The VOG
Group at NORCE added a selection of Svalbox models to the V3Geo portal. We
sincerely appreciate all feedback from UNIS colleagues and data sharing from
MSc and PhD students and – of course – all the students of the AG222
course at UNIS over the years.
Financial support
This research has been supported by the University of the Arctic (grants CAGE, HalipDAT, and Svalbox2020) and ARCEx partners and the Research Council of Norway (grant no. 228107).
Review statement
This paper was edited by Sam Illingworth and reviewed by Martin Bohle and Rachel Bosch.
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